History

The Roman invasion of Britain in 55 BC and its subsequent incorporation into the Roman Empire stimulated development and brought more active contacts with the rest of Europe. As Rome's strength declined the country again was exposed to invasion-including the pivotal incursions of the Angles Saxons and Jutes in the fifth and sixth centuries AD -- up to the Norman conquest in 1066. Norman rule effectively ensured Britain's safety from further intrusions and so that certain institutions which remain characteristic of Britain could develop. Among these institutions are a political administrative cultural and economic center in London; a separate but established church; a system of common law; distinctive and distinguished university education; and representative government.

Union

Wales and Scotland were independent kingdoms that fiercely resisted English rule. The English conquest of Wales succeeded in 1282 under Edward I and the Statute of Rhuddlan established English rule 2 years later. To appease the Welsh Edward's son (later Edward II) who had been born in Wales was made Prince of Wales in 1301. The tradition of bestowing this title on the eldest son of the British monarch continues today. An act of 1536 completed the political and administrative union of England and Wales.

While maintaining separate parliaments England and Scotland were ruled under one crown begining in 1603 when James VI of Scotland succeeded his cousin Elizabeth I as James I of England. In the ensuing 100 years strong religious and political differences divided the kingdoms. Finally in 1707 England and Scotland were unified as Great Britain sharing a single Parliament and flag (the "Union Jack").

Ireland's invasion by the Anglo-Normans in 1170 led to centuries of strife. Successive English kings sought to conquer Ireland. In the early 17th century large-scale settlement of the north from Scotland and England began. After its defeat Ireland was subjected with varying degrees of success to control and regulation by Britain.

The legislative union of Great Britain and Ireland was completed on January 1 1801 under the name of the United Kingdom. However armed struggle for independence continued sporadically into the 20th century. The Anglo-Irish Treaty of 1921 established the Irish Free State which subsequently left the Commonwealth and became a republic after World War II. Six northern predominantly Protestant counties have remained part of the United Kingdom.

British Expansion and Empire

Begun initially to support William the Conqueror's (c. 1029-1087) holdings in France Britain's policy of active involvement in European affairs endured for several hundred years. By the end of the 14th century foreign trade originally based on wool exports to Europe had emerged as a cornerstone of national policy.

The foundations of sea power were gradually laid to protect English trade and open up new routes. Defeat of the Spanish Armada in 1588 firmly established England as a major sea power. Thereafter its interests outside Europe grew steadily. Attracted by the spice trade English mercantile interests spread first to the Far East. In search of an alternate route to the Spice Islands John Cabot reached the North American continent in 1498. Sir Walter Raleigh organized the first short-lived colony in Virginia in 1584 and permanent English settlement began in 1607 at Jamestown Virginia. During the next 2 centuries Britain extended its influence abroad and consolidated its political development at home.

Great Britain's industrial revolution greatly strengthened its ability to oppose Napoleonic France. By the end of the Napoleonic Wars in 1815 the United Kingdom was the foremost European power and its navy ruled the seas. Peace in Europe allowed the British to focus their interests on more remote parts of the world and during this period the British Empire reached its zenith. British colonial expansion reached its height largely during the reign of Queen Victoria (1837-1901). Queen Victoria's reign witnessed the spread of British technology commerce language and government throughout the British Empire which at its greatest extent encompassed roughly one-quarter to one-fifth of the world's area and population. British colonies contributed to the United Kingdom's extraordinary economic growth and strengthened its voice in world affairs. Even as the United Kingdom became more imperial abroad it continued to develop and broaden its democratic institutions at home.

20th Century

By the time of Queen Victoria's death in 1901 other nations including the United States and Germany had developed their own industries; the United Kingdom's comparative economic advantage had lessened and the ambitions of its rivals had grown. The losses and destruction of World War I the depression of the 1930s and decades of relatively slow growth made it difficult for the United Kingdom to maintain its preeminent international position of the previous century.

Britain's control over its empire loosened during the interwar period. Ireland with the exception of six northern counties broke away from the United Kingdom in 1921. Nationalism became stronger in other parts of the empire particularly in India and Egypt. Egypt gained independence from the United Kingdom in February 1922. However, during the interwar period, the British Empire had reached its maximum in territory with the last imperial expansion which saw a British mandate over former German and Turkish territories in Africa, the Middle East and in the Pacific.

In 1926 the U.K. completed a process, begun a century earlier, which granted Australia, Canada, New Zealand and South Africa complete autonomy within the empire. They became charter members of the British Commonwealth of Nations (now known as the Commonwealth), an informal but closely knit association that succeeded the empire. Beginning with the independence of India and Pakistan in 1947 the remainder of the British Empire was almost completely dismantled. Today, most of Britain's former colonies belong to the Commonwealth - almost all of them as independent members. There are however 13 former British colonies -- including Bermuda Gibraltar and the Falkland Islands -- which have elected to continue their political links with London and are known as United Kingdom Overseas Territories.

Although weakened by economic and political nationalism, the Commonwealth offers the United Kingdom a voice in matters concerning many developing countries. In addition the Commonwealth helps preserve many institutions deriving from British experience and models such as parliamentary democracy in those countries. Today, 16 independent Commonwealth countries, including Canada, Australia, New Zealand, Jamaica, Barbados, Papua New Guinea and others, remain as realms of the Crown sharing Queen Elizabeth II as sovereign, where she is represented by a Governor General in each one, except the United Kingdom. The other Commonwealth countries are either republics or have their own national monarchies.